Chibchan languages

For other uses, see Chibcha language (disambiguation).

Chibchan
Geographic distribution	Costa Rica, Panama and Colombia
Linguistic classification	Macro-Chibchan ? Chibchan
Language codes
ISO 639-5	cba
Glottolog	chib1249

The Chibchan languages (also known as Chibchano) make up a language family indigenous to the Isthmo-Colombian Area, which extends from eastern Honduras to northern Colombia and includes populations of these countries as well as Nicaragua, Costa Rica, and Panama. The name is derived from the name of an extinct language called Chibcha or Muisca, once spoken by the people who lived on the Altiplano Cundiboyacense of which the city of Bogotá was the southern capital at the time of the Spanish Conquista. However, genetic and linguistic data now indicate that the original heart of Chibchan languages and Chibchan-speaking peoples might not have been in Colombia, but in the area of the Costa Rica-Panama border, where the greatest variety of Chibchan languages has been identified.

External relations

A larger family called Macro-Chibchan, which would contain the Misumalpan languages, Xinca, and Lenca, was found convincing by Kaufman (1990).

Based primarily on evidence from grammatical morphemes, Pache (2018, 2023) suggests a distant relationship with the Macro-Jê languages.

Language contact

Jolkesky (2016) notes that there are lexical similarities with the Andaki, Barbakoa, Choko, Duho, Paez, Sape, and Taruma language families due to contact.

Classification

• Chibchan
  • A
    • Waimí (Guaymi)
      • Guaymí (Ngäbere, Movere) – 170,000 speakers, vulnerable in Panama, endangered in Costa Rica
      • Buglere (Bokotá) – 18,000 speakers, endangered
    • Borũca (Brunca) – 140 speakers, moribund
    • Talamanca
      • Huetar (Güetar) †
      • Bribri (Talamanca), 7,000 speakers – vulnerable in Costa Rica, endangered in Panama
      • Cabécar (Talamanca) – 8,800 speakers, vulnerable
      • Teribe (Norteño) – 3,300 speakers, endangered
  • B
    • Pech (Paya) – 990 speakers, endangered
    • Dorasque †
    • Votic
      • Rama – 740 speakers, moribund
      • Voto †
      • Maléku (Guatuso) – 750 speakers, endangered
      • Corobicí – northwestern Costa Rica †
    • Cuna–Colombian
      • Kuna (Dulegaya) – 60,600 speakers, vulnerable in Panama, endangered in Colombia
      • Chibcha–Motilon
        • Barí (Motilón) – 5,000 speakers, vulnerable
        • Chibcha–Tunebo
          • Muisca – †
          • Duit †
          • U'wa (Tunebo) – 2,550 speakers, endangered
          • Guane † – Colombia
      • Arwako–Chimila
        • Chimila – 350 speakers, endangered
        • Arwako
          • Wiwa (Malayo, Guamaca) – 1,850 speakers, endangered
          • Kankuamo †
          • Arhuaco (Ikʉ) – 8,000 speakers, vulnerable
          • Kogi (Cogui) – 9,910 speakers, vulnerable

The extinct languages of Antioquia, Old Catío and Nutabe have been shown to be Chibchan (Adelaar & Muysken, 2004:49). The language of the Tairona is unattested, apart from a single word, but may well be one of the Arwako languages still spoken in the Santa Marta range. It is said to be used by the Kogi people as a shamanistic ritual language. The Zenú a.k.a. Sinú language of northern Colombia is also sometimes included, as are the Malibu languages, though without any factual basis.

Adolfo Constenla Umaña argues that Cueva, the extinct dominant language of Pre-Columbian Panama long assumed to be Chibchan based on a misinterpreted Kuna vocabulary, was actually Chocoan, but there is little evidence.

The Cofán language (Kofán, Kofane, A'i) of Ecuador and Colombia has been erroneously included in Chibchan due to borrowed vocabulary.

On the basis of shared grammatical innovations, Pache (2023) argues that Pech is most closely related to the Arhuacic languages of northern Colombia, forming a Pech-Arhuacic subgroup.

Jolkesky (2016)

Internal classification by Jolkesky (2016):

(† = extinct)

• Chibcha
  • Pech
  • Votic
    • Maleku
    • Rama
    • Wetar
  • Isthmus
    • Boruka-Talamanca
      • Boruka
      • Talamanca
        • Teribe
        • Bribri-Kabekar
          • Bribri
          • Kabekar
    • Doraske-Changena
      • Changena †
      • Doraske †
    • Guaymi
      • Buglere
      • Ngäbe
    • Kuna
      • Kuna Paya-Pukuro
      • Kuna San Blas
  • Magdalena
    • Barí
    • Chimila
    • Nutabe †
    • U'wa
    • Muisca
      • Guane †
      • Muisca
    • Sierra de Santa Marta
      • Kaggaba
      • Tairona †
      • Wiwa-Ika
        • Ika
        • Kankuamo †
        • Wiwa

Varieties

Below is a full list of Chibchan language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968), including names of unattested varieties.

Chibchan language varieties listed by Loukotka (1968)

Rama group Rama – language spoken around Bluefields Lagoon and on the Rama River, Nicaragua. Melchora – extinct language once spoken on the San Juan Melchoras River, Nicaragua. (Unattested.) Guatuso group Guatuso – spoken on the Frío River, Costa Rica, now perhaps extinct. Guetar / Brusela – extinct language once spoken on the Grande River, Costa Rica. Suerre / Camachire / Chiuppa – extinct language once spoken on the Tortuguero River, Costa Rica. (Benzoni 1581, p. 214, only five words.) Pocosi – extinct language once spoken on the Matina River and around the modern city of Puerto Limón, Costa Rica. (Unattested.) Voto – extinct language once spoken at the mouth of the San Juan River, Costa Rica. (Unattested.) Quepo – extinct language once spoken in Costa Rica on the Pacuare River. (W. Lehmann 1920, vol. 1, p. 238, only one single word.) Corobisi / Corbesi / Cueresa / Rama de Rio Zapote – spoken by a few individuals in Costa Rica on the Zapote River. (Alvarez in Conzemius 1930, pp. 96–99.) Talamanca group Terraba / Depso / Quequexque / Brurán – extinct language once spoken in Costa Rica on the Tenorio River. Tirub / Rayado / Tiribi – extinct language spoken once in Costa Rica on the Virilla River. Bribri / Lari – spoken on the Coca River and Tarire River, Costa Rica. Estrella – Spanish name of an extinct language, the original name of which is unknown, once spoken on the Estrella River, Costa Rica. Cabecar – language spoken on the Moy River, Costa Rica. Chiripó – language spoken in Costa Rica on the Matina River and Chirripó River. Viceyta / Abiseta / Cachi / Orosi / Tucurrique – extinct language once spoken on the Tarire River, Costa Rica. Brunca / Boruca / Turucaca – extinct language of Costa Rica, spoken on the Grande River and in the Boruca region. Coto / Cocto – extinct language once spoken between the sources of the Coto River and Grande River, Costa Rica. (Unattested.) Dorasque group Chumulu – extinct language once spoken in El Potrero, Veraguas (Potrero de Vargas), Panama. Gualaca – extinct language once spoken on the Chiriqui River, Panama. Changuena – once spoken in Panama, on the Changuena River. Guaymi group Muoi – extinct language once spoken in the Miranda Valley of Panama. Move / Valiente – now spoken on the Guaymi River and in the Veragua Peninsula. Norteño – dialect without an aboriginal name, spoken on the northern coast of Panama, now perhaps extinct. Penonomeño – once spoken in the village of Penonemé. Murire / Bucueta / Boncota / Bogota – spoken in the Serranía de Tabasara by a few families. Sabanero / Savaneric / Valiente – extinct dialect without aboriginal name, once spoken on the plains south of the Serranía de Tabasara. Pariza – extinct dialect spoken in the Conquest days on the Veragua Peninsula. (G. Espinosa 1864, p. 496, only one single word.) Cuna group Coiba – extinct language once spoken on the Chagres River, Panama. (W. Lehmann 1920, vol. I, pp. 112–122; A. Santo Tomas 1908, pp. 124–128, only five words.) Cuna / Bayano / Tule / Mandingo / San Blas / Karibe-Kuna / Yule – language spoken in eastern Panama, especially on the Bayano River, in San Blas and the small islands on the northern coast. Cueva / Darien – extinct language Once spoken at the mouth of the Atrato River, Colombia. Chochama – extinct language once spoken on the Suegro River, Panama. (Unattested.) Antioquia group Guazuzú – once spoken in the Sierra de San Jerónimo, department of Antioquia, Colombia. (Unattested.) Oromina / Zeremoe – extinct language once spoken south of the Gulf of Urabá, Antioquia, Colombia. (Unattested.) Catio – once spoken in the region of Dabaiba, Colombia. (only a few words.) Hevejico – once spoken in the Tonusco and Ebéjico Valleys. (Unattested.) Abibe – once spoken in the Sierra de Abibe. (Unattested.) Buritaca – once spoken at the sources of the Sucio River. (Unattested.) Caramanta – once spoken around the city of Caramanta. Cartama – once spoken around the modern city of Cartama. (Unattested.) Pequi – once spoken in the Pequi region. (Unattested.) Arma – once spoken on the Pueblanco River. (Unattested.) Poze – once spoken on the Pozo River and Pacova River. (Cieza de Leon 1881, p. 26, only one single word.) Nutabé – once spoken in the San Andrés Valley. Tahami – once spoken on the Magdalena River and Tora River. (Unattested.) Yamesi – once spoken at the mouth of the Nechi River and on the Porce River. (Simon 1882–1892, vol. 5, p. 80, only one single word.) Avurrá – once spoken in the Aburrá Valley. (Piedrahita (Fernandez de Piedrahita) 1688, cap. 2, f. 9, only one single word.) Guamoco – once spoken around the modern city of Zaragoza, Antioquia. (Unattested.) Anserma / Humbra / Umbra – once spoken on the Cauca River around the city of Anserma, Caldas. (J. Robledo 1865, pp. 389 and 392, only a few words.) Amachi – once spoken in the San Bartolomé Valley. (Unattested.) Chibcha group Chibcha / Muisca / Mosca – extinct language once spoken on the upper plateau of Bogotá and Tunja, department of Cundinamarca, Colombia. Duit dialect – once spoken on the Tunja River and Tundama River. Tunebo / Tame – language now spoken by many tribes living in the area east of the Chibcha tribe. Dialects: Tegría – spoken on the Tegría River, department of Boyaca. (Rochereau 1926–1927, 1946–1950, 1959.) Pedraza – spoken on the Pedraza River. Boncota – spoken on the Boncota River. Manare – spoken on the Manare River. Sinsiga / Chita – spoken in the village of Chita, Boyacá and on the Chisca River. Uncasica – spoken in the Sierra Librada. Morcote – spoken on the Tocaría River and in the village of Morcote. (Unattested.) Chitarero – extinct language once spoken around the modern city of Pamplona, department of Santander. (Unattested.) Lache – extinct language once spoken on the Chicamocha River and in the Sierra de Chita, department of Boyacá. (Unattested.) Motilon group Dobocubí / Motilon – spoken on the Tarra River and around the old mission of Atacarayo, department of Norte de Santander, Colombia. Bartra / Cunaguasáya – spoken by a tribe on the Oro River, Rincón River, and Lora River in the Norte de Santander region. Mape – spoken by a little known tribe on the Catatumbo River and Agua Blanca River in the Norte de Santander region and in the state of Zulia, Venezuela. Arhuaco (Arwako) group Tairona / Teyuna – extinct language once spoken on the Frio River and on the Caribbean coast, department of Magdalena, Colombia, now a secret language of the priests in the Cagaba tribe. Zyuimakane – extinct language once spoken on the Volador River in the same region. (Unattested.) Bungá – extinct language once spoken on the Santa Clara River. (Unattested.) Ulabangui – once spoken on the Negro River, in the Santa Clara River region. (Unattested.) Cashingui – once spoken on the Palomino River. (Unattested.) Masinga – once spoken on the Bonda River, in the Palomino River region. (Unattested.) Bonda / Matuna – once spoken on the Bonda River and Santa María River. (Holmer 1953a, p. 313, only one single word; Preuss 1927, only a few toponyms.) Cágaba / Köggaba / Kaugia / Koghi – language spoken in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta in the villages of San Andrés, San Miguel, San José, Santa Rosa, and Pueblo Viejo. Guamaca / Nábela / Sanha / Arsario – spoken in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta region in the villages of El Rosario, Potrerito, and Marocaso. Bintucua / Ijca / Ika / Iku / Machaca / Vintukva – spoken in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta region in the village of San Sebastián (near Atanquez). Atanque / Campanaque / Busintana / Buntigwa / Kallwama – spoken in the Sierra Nevada de Santa Marta, in the village of Atanquez. Upar / Eurpari / Giriguana – extinct language once spoken on the César River. (Unattested.) Cariachil – once spoken between the Molino River and Fonseca River. (Unattested.) Ocanopán / Itoto – once spoken around Cerro Pintado. (Unattested.) Paya group Paya / Poyuai / Seco – language spoken on the Guayape River and between the Patuca River and Sico River, Honduras.

Proto-language

Proto-Chibchan
Reconstruction of	Chibchan languages

Pache (2018) is the most recent reconstruction of Proto-Chibchan. Other reconstructions include Holt (1986).

Constenla (1981)

Proto-Chibchan reconstructions by Constenla (1981):

Proto-Chibchan reconstructions by Constenla (1981)

gloss Proto-Chibchan arm, hand, shoulder *ˈkuíkI, *ˈkuí- ashes *bur-, *buˈrṹ at, in *skA; *ki; *sə at, in, towards *ka big (size or quantity) *təˈĩ bird *dù blood *ApÍ boat, craft *huˈLù body *AˈpÀ bone *ˈkàrə breasts *kAʔ breast *ˈtsúʔ, *ˈtsúʔtsú brother *səˈkə brother-in-law *ˈuba; *ˈduáʔ butterfly *kuA-, *kuAʔ- cedar (several trees of the Cedrela genus) *uˈru ceiba *puLí, *puLíkI child, young of an animal, egg *əˈrə̀ child, young of an animal *ˈuÁʔ- cloth *ˈsuá- cloud *ˈbõ̀, *bo- cockroach *ˈsóx- cocoa *kə́ˈhùʔ come *ˈda-; *ˈdI- cook *ˈdu- cotton *suˈhí cough, catarrh *ˈtóʔ crocodile *ˈkú- cultivated field *ˈtÌ curassow (Crax rubra) *ˈdubÍ deer *ˈsur, *ˈsurĩ̀ diminutive *-ˈaːrə dog *ˈto dove (common ground dove) *ˈÚtu- dry *diˈsə- dry season *ˈduá- eagle, hawk *ˈpṹ ear *ˈkuhkə́, *ˈkuhkuə́ eat, drink *ˈga- egg, sprout, suckling *ˈpú emerald toucanet *dəˈkər̃ə́ enter *ˈdok- excrement *ˈgã́ eye *úb face *uˈbə́ father *ˈkáka feline *dəbə̃́; *kuLÁʔ find *ˈkũ finger, hand *ˈkU firewood, fire, coal, live coal *ˈgÌ first person prefix *də̃- fish *ˈuA; *dibÃ̀ five *sAkẽ́ flesh *gAtA fly *ˈkulu foot *sAˈkə̃ four *bəhˈke fruit *ubə́ give birth *ˈgU- gnat (jején) *buˈr̃ṹʔ go *ˈdA- grease *ˈkiə́ grind *ˈuʔ grindstone, to sharpen *ˈiáʔ grow, widen *təˈlə- guan (bird) *ˈkũ̀ hand *AtA; *guLÀ head, hair *ˈtsã̀ house *ˈhu how many *ˈbi hunger *bAˈLi I *ˈda jocote (Spondias purpurea), jobo (Spondias mombin) *bəˈrə́ʔ kill *ˈguə know, see *sũ lake *iAˈbÁ laugh *ˈhaĩ laurel (Cordia alliodora) *ˈBúʔ leaf *ˈkə́ leg *kəˈrə liquid *dí; *ˈli lizard *ulíʔ louse *ˈkṹ maize *ˈIBI make *gU mayo (tree) *bèk monkey: howler monkey *úriʔ monkey: spider monkey *dõ̀, *do- monkey: white-faced monkey *hòkI moon, month *siˈhíʔ mother-in-law *ˈgAkA mouse *ˈsuhkÌ mouth *ˈkahkə mud *ˈdÚ; *oˈr̃i name *ˈhaká nape, neck *duˈkurə neck *ˈgala net *kAˈlÁʔ nose *dəˈIkI now *ˈBə old *AˈkÍkI; *tAˈlá one *ˈé ? otter *doʔ paca (Agouti paca) *ˈkuri peachpalm (Bactris gasipaes, Guilelma utilis) *ˈsúbaʔ peccary (Tayassu pecari spiradens) *siˈdĩ́ʔ peel, undress *ˈsu- person *ApÍ- place, time, environment, land *ˈká plant *ˈdi poró tree, elequeme tree (synonyms) *baˈlò pot, vessel, jar *ˈũ pumpkin, squash *Apì rattle, maraca, colander, gourd cup (= object elaborated from a gourd) *ˈtã́ reed *kəˈru rotten *ˈdṹ sand *ˈu; *ˈuBA say *ˈguA-; *ˈgI sea *dAgÌ second person prefix *bi- see *ˈguəkI seek *ˈdí seed, plant *ˈpkua seize, hold *kaLUh- seven *ˈkúh- shark *tAˈLì shrimp *ˈkUs sing *ˈtA six *ˈted skin, bark *hukə́ sleep *kAp- small *ˈ¢id smell, odor *hALÀ snake *tAkAbÌ soil, earth, dirt, clay *ˈtÁBA son *gAbÀ spider *óhk squirrel *kudã́ star *bÌ- stick (a spear), insert, put in *ˈtsã stone *ˈhákI sun *dì; *ˈka; *dui sweet *bəˈlóʔ tail *ˈduhkI tapir *dAĩ́ʔ take *ˈgúʔ tear *ˈubə́diə that *ˈhéʔ; *ˈse; *ˈkue; *ˈdiÀ third person *i-; *A this *ˈdi-; *ˈhíʔ three *ˈbai tobacco *ˈdu, *ˈduə̀ tongue *pkúʔ, *ˈpkuə́ tooth *ˈtu; *aˈkə toucan sp. *Biˈli tray (made of wood, used to wash) *kuˈLIʔ transitive verb marker *Bə- tree *ˈkàr; *kaˈri tree, trunk of a tree, wood *ˈkarə́ tuber *ˈtuʔ turtle *kuÌ; *uˈli two *ˈbU uncle *kəˈru vulva *ˈkÍ water *ˈdíʔ we (inclusive) *ˈsẽ́ʔ weep *ˈbo what *ˈhi where *biə white *buLu wind *ˈBur- with *uA; *tÁ woodpecker *soˈr̃o woods, firewood *ˈbUʔ work *hiBA worm *ˈgĩ́ you (sg.) *ˈbáʔ yucca *ˈik

Proto-Chibchan horticultural vocabulary (Constenla 2012):

• *dihke 'to sow'
• *te¹ 'cultivated clearing'
• *ike 'manioc'
• *tuʔ 'tuber, yam' (Dioscorea spp.; Xanthosoma sagittifolium)
• *apì 'pumpkin, squash'
• *e, *ebe 'maize'
• *du, *dua¹ 'tobacco'
• *tã¹ 'rattles from gourd'
• *toka 'gourd cup'

Pache (2018)

Proto-Chibchan reconstructions by Pache (2018):

Proto-Chibchan reconstructions by Pache (2018)

gloss Proto-Chibchan all *ᵐbaⁿd-; *pii-ⁿda allative/dative *ka angry *uⁿdu arm, wing, shoulder *kwik armadillo *ⁿduʔ ashes *ᵐbũⁿd(ũ) aspect, imperfective *-e aspect, perfective *-o back *ⁿda(kiⁿd) ~ *ta(kiⁿd); *ᵑga(ⁿda) bad *ᵑgwahⁿd; *saⁿd(a) basket, mochila *si bat *(ⁿdu-)ku(ⁿd) to bathe, swim *hauᵐb ~ *aᵐbuʔ to be *ⁿda(i) ~ *ta(i) beam of light, heat *ᵐbaʔ beautiful *ⁿdu bee, honey *La bee, wasp *ᵐbuⁿd(u) to begin, start, first *pahⁿd- belly *ita ~ *iⁿda ~ *iaⁿd big *ᵐbuⁿdi ~ *kuⁿdi ~ *kuiⁿd(i); *ᵐbu-ⁿda bile, gall, bitter *hakiʔ bird, dove *ⁿdu(ⁿd) blood *hapi ~ *apiʔ to blow, fly *kuʔ body *apa bone, strong, hard *kãⁿd- bone, hard *ⁿdaⁿdi ~ ⁿdaiⁿd- / saⁿdi ~ *saiⁿd- breast, teat *kãʔ; *ʦuʔ breath, wind *ᵐbuⁿd- brother *ⁿdaᵐba; *ⁿdaka / *saka brother-in-law *(ⁿd-)uᵐba butterfly, hat *kwahkwah calabash *ⁿdãᵐbã / *sãᵐbã; *taukaʔ to catch, grasp *ka cedar *uⁿdu chicha *ᵐba chicken *aʦa-kaⁿda child *ᵑgwaʔ child, small *ʦu clay, mud *(taBi-)ⁿda cloud, fog *ᵐba- coal, hot coal *kuⁿda cold, cold substance *ⁿdaᵐba- cold *ʦãĩh to come *ⁿda comitative *ⁿda ~ *ta; *uˈa; *ᵐba to cook *Li; *ⁿdu cosmos (sky, day, time, space, earth, place) *kaʔ(k) creeping animal *ⁿda(ⁿd) / *sa(ⁿd) to dance *kwi dark *tuⁿdi ~ *tuiⁿd dative *ia diarrhea *ᵑga-ⁿdi(a) to do, make *õ dog *tau dove *ⁿdu-ᵐba(ⁿd) dry *ⁿdiⁿda / *ⁿdisa; *puⁿd- dust *kaʔ(k)-puⁿd- earth, floor, mud *taB(a) to eat *kuⁿdi ~ *kuiⁿd egg, offspring *La eight *hap- to enter *ⁿdaʔ-u excrement *ᵑga exterior *ᵐbaⁿd(a) ~ *ᵐbat(a) face *ᵑgwa(k) face, eye, fruit *uᵐba father *ka(ka) father, uncle, ancestor *ⁿdũ(-i) feather, wing, arm, hand *ᵑgak feline *ⁿdaᵐba; *ku(ⁿd-) field for cultivation *tai fireplace *ᵑga-u (ka[k]) firewood *ᵑgi fish *ᵑgwa ~ *uᵑg flea *ᵐbak- foot, root *kihʦa ~ *kihsa four *ᵐbahka(i) friend, other *pai full *(hi-)iⁿda ~ *(hi-)ita to go *ᵐb-; *ⁿdaʔ ~ *taʔ god, wind *siᵐba to grow *kuH ~ *ᵐbuH hair, head *ʦa hand *haⁿd- ~ *hat- hand, arm *ᵑguⁿdaʔ hand, finger *kuuʔ to hear *kuh heart, liver, center *ᵐbihⁿda ~ *ᵐbihta; *taH(ᵐba) to holler *ᵐbau(ⁿd) ~ *kau(ⁿd) house *hu how much, how many *ᵐbi- human being *ᵐbaⁿdi ~ *ᵐbaiⁿd hummingbird *ᵐbiʦi ~ *ᵐbisi hunger *ᵐbaⁿdi I *ⁿdaH(ⁿd) instrumental/locative *ⁿdi jealous *ᵐbau(ⁿd) to kill *ᵑgua to know *ᵑgw- lake, rain [*ⁿdi-ɡwa] to laugh *haⁿd leaf *ka lightning *Guⁿdi ~ *GuiHⁿd lip *uk-ⁿda liquid *ⁿdiʔ-a liver *haiⁿd locative *ⁿda ~ *ta; *ki; *ʦika ~ *tsaik to look for, look after *ⁿdi louse *kũʔ maize *aiB ~ aBi manioc *i(k) meat, flesh *ᵑgaʔⁿda ~ *ᵑgaʔta; *sih monkey *huⁿdĩ ~ uⁿdĩʔ moon *siʔ mosquito *ʦuiⁿd mother-in-law, daughter-in-law *ᵑgak mouth *kah-ka mouth, vagina *ʦipi name *haka ~ *akaʔ nape *ⁿdu-kuⁿd(a) / *ⁿdu-kus(a) neck *ᵑgaⁿda net *kaⁿdaʔ new *(a-)ᵐbihⁿd- ~ *(a-)ᵐbiht- night, dark *ʦii nine, ten *uk(a) nominalizer *-ᵐba; *-ⁿd-; *-ka nose *ⁿdii(k) (older) sibling, (older) sister *ᵑgwi only *ᵐbii open *kah pale *siʔ-kwa palm *huka path *hi to peel *suʔ possessed *-i post, pole *ʦauⁿd ~ *tsuⁿda pot *hũ prick, sting, point *ⁿduk / *suk pumpkin, squash *apii(s) to put *eʔ raptor *pũʔ rattle *taʔ raw *tah(-ka) red, yellow, ripe *taʔBa relational element *ⁿd(i)-; *ʦ(i)- rodent, large *kuⁿdi ~ *kuiⁿd rodent, small *suh(-kui) rope, string *ki round *ᵐbiⁿd(i) salt *ⁿdaᵑg sand *uB(V)(-ta) to scratch, rub *ʦuH to see *su seed *ⁿduⁿd- seed, fruit *kwa seven *kuh side *suuⁿd to sit (singular) *ʦaʔ six *taiⁿd- skin *huka ~ *huBa ~ kuaʔ to sleep *kap- small *Buⁿd-; *ʦiⁿd(a) smell *Laʔ snake *takaᵐb- ~ *taᵐbak soft *ʦiⁿdi son, child *ᵑgaᵐba to sow *ⁿdihk- spoon, ladle *ʦuiⁿd ~ *ʦuⁿdi to stand (singular) *ⁿdu- stick, bone, tree *kaⁿd- ~ *kat- stomach *ⁿduaᵐbih stone *hak ~ *kaʔ sun, day *ⁿdi sun, year *ⁿdu- to swallow, drink, eat *-hu ~ *-uʔ sweet potato *Baiʔ tail *ᵐbaⁿd(a)-; *ⁿduh(k) to take *ᵑgu to take out, pick up *hapi ~ *apiʔ tasty *ᵐbaⁿd- tear *uᵐba ⁿdiʔa that *a this *hi ~ *iʔ three *ᵐbãʔ(ĩ) throat *ᵐbi-ⁿdaʔ throat, hole *kuHⁿdi ~ *kuiHⁿd ~ *BuHⁿdi tobacco *ⁿdua tongue *kuʔ(-Ba) tooth (molar) *haka tooth *ⁿduʔ turkey, large galliform bird *(ᵑg)uⁿd- to turn around *ᵐbuⁿd- ~ *kuⁿd- turtle *kwi to twist *ᵐbu two *ᵐbuuʔ up, sky *ᵐbii urine *huʦi ~ *huiʦ valency-reducer *a-; *aʔ-; *aⁿd- to walk *ⁿdai to wash *suh(k) to watch *ᵑguⁿda ~ *ᵑgwaⁿd water, river *ⁿdiʔ to wear *(ⁿd)iˈa white, morning *ᵐbuⁿd(u) who, someone *ⁿdi wind *ᵐbuⁿd-kaⁿd(a) woman (adult) *ᵐbuⁿdi ~ *ᵐbuiⁿd ~ *ᵑguⁿdi ~ *ᵑguiⁿd woman (young) *ᵐbus- worm *ᵑgi wound, trace *saⁿda to wrap *ᵐbaʔk you *ᵐbaʔ young, sprout *pu

Bibliography

• Constenla Umaña, A. (1981). Comparative Chibchan Phonology. (Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of Pennsylvania, Philadelphia).
• Constenla Umaña, A. (1985). Las lenguas dorasque y changuena y sus relaciones genealógicas. Filologia y linguística, 11.2:81–91.
• Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. (1991). Las lenguas del Área Intermedia: Introducción a su estudio areal. Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica, San José.
• Constenla Umaña, Adolfo. (1995). Sobre el estudio diacrónico de las lenguas chibchenses y su contribución al conocimiento del pasado de sus hablantes. Boletín del Museo del Oro 38–39: 13–56.
• Estudios de Lingüística Chibcha, a journal of Chibchan linguistics, is published by the Universidad de Costa Rica.
• Greenberg, Joseph H. (1987). Language in the Americas. Stanford: Stanford University Press.
• Headland, E. (1997). Diccionario bilingüe con una gramatica Uw Cuwa (Tunebo). Bogotá: Summer Institute of Linguistics.
• Holt, Dennis (1986). The Development of the Paya Sound-System. (Ph.D. dissertation, Department of Linguistics, University of California, Los Angeles).
• Margery Peña, E. (1982). Diccionario español-bribri, bribri-español. San José: Editorial Universidad de Costa Rica.
• Margery Peña, E. (1989). Diccionario Cabécar-Español, Español-Cabécar. Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica.
• Pinart, A. L. (1890). Vocabulario Castellano-Dorasque: Dialectos Chumulu, Gualaca y Changuina. (Petite Bibliothèque Américaine, 2). Paris: Ernest Leroux.
• Pinart, A. L. (1892). Vocabulario Guaymie: Dialectos Move-Valiente Norteño y Guaymie Penonomeño. (Petite Bibliothèque Américaine, 3). Paris: Ernest Leroux.
• Pinart, A. L. (1897). Vocabulario Guaymie: Dialectos Murıre-Bukueta, Mouı y Sabanero. (Petite Bibliothèque Américaine, 4). Paris: Ernest Leroux.
• Quesada, J. Diego (2007). The Chibchan Languages. Editorial Tecnológica de Costa Rica. ISBN 9977-66-186-3.
• Quesada Pacheco, M. A.; Rojas Chaves, C. (1999). Diccionario boruca-español, español-boruca. San José: Editorial de la Universidad de Costa Rica.

External links

• Comparative Chibchan phonology — 1981 dissertation by Adolfo Constenla.