Jump to content

Palaeoloxodon

From Wikipedia, the free encyclopedia
(Redirected from Antique elephant)
Not to be confused with Palaeoxonodon.

Palaeoloxodon
Temporal range: Early Pleistocene–Holocene
↓
Skeleton of the straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus) at the paleontological museum of the Sapienza University of Rome
Scientific classification Edit this classification
Domain: Eukaryota
Kingdom: Animalia
Phylum: Chordata
Class: Mammalia
Order: Proboscidea
Clade: Elephantida
Superfamily: Elephantoidea
Family: Elephantidae
Genus: †Palaeoloxodon
Matsumoto, 1924[1]
Type species
Elephas namadicus naumanni
Makiyama, 1924
Species

See text

Synonyms
  • Sivalikia Osborn, 1924
  • Pilgrimia Osborn, 1924
  • Hesperoloxodon Osborn, 1931

Palaeoloxodon is an extinct genus of elephant. The genus originated in Africa during the Early Pleistocene, and expanded into Eurasia at the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene. The genus contains the largest known species of elephants, over 4 metres (13 ft) tall at the shoulders and over 13 tonnes (29,000 lb) in weight, representing among the largest land mammals ever, including the African Palaeoloxodon recki, the European straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus) and the South Asian Palaeoloxodon namadicus. P. namadicus has been suggested to be the largest known land mammal by some authors based on extrapolation from fragmentary remains, though these estimates are highly speculative.[2] In contrast, the genus also contains many species of dwarf elephants that evolved via insular dwarfism on islands in the Mediterranean, some like Palaeoloxodon falconeri less than 1 metre (3.3 ft) in shoulder height as fully grown adults, making them the smallest elephants known. The genus has a long and complex taxonomic history, and at various times, it has been considered to belong to Loxodonta or Elephas, but today is usually considered a valid and separate genus in its own right.

History of research and taxonomy

[edit]

Remains of Palaeoloxodon species have probably been noted since ancient times where their remains like those of other fossil proboscideans were interpreted as those of giants or other mythical beings.[3] In 1695, remains of a straight-tusked elephant were collected from travertine deposits near Burgtonna in what is now Thuringia, Germany. While these remains were originally declared by the Collegium Medicum in the nearby city of Gotha to be purely mineral in nature, Wilhelm Ernst Tentzel, a polymath in the employ of the ducal court of Saxe-Gotha-Altenburg, correctly recognised that they represented the remains of an elephant.[4] Prior to 1845, the remains of Eurasian species of Palaeoloxodon were considered to be those of woolly mammoths. The earliest species of Palaeoloxodon to be described, the European straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus) and the South Asian Palaeoloxodon namadicus, were named by British paleontologists Hugh Falconer and Proby Cautley in 1846-47. Prior to the description of the genus, Palaeoloxodon species were initially placed in the genus Elephas (which includes the Asian elephant).[5] In 1924, Matsumoto Hikoshichirō coined Palaeoloxodon, and circumscribed it as a subgenus of Loxodonta (which include the living species of African elephants). It included the "E. antiquus—namadicus group", and he designated the Japanese "E. namadicus naumanni Mak." as its type species.[1] Also in 1924, American paleontologist Henry Fairfield Osborn named the genera Sivalika and Pilgrimia, with the former covering the Asian species and the latter covering the African and Mediterranean island dwarf species of Paleoloxodon. In 1931 Osborn named the genus Hesperoloxodon to include Palaeoloxodon antiquus. In a 1942 posthumous publication, Osborn recognised Sivalika and Pilgrimia as junior synonyms of Palaeoloxodon, while still recognising Hesperoloxodon as valid.[3] This publication was the first to consider Palaeoloxodon a valid genus in its own right, an opinion followed by later authors such as Emiliano Aguirre in 1969.[6] Later authors have considered Hesperoloxodon another synonym of Palaeoloxodon. Vincent J. Maglio in a 1973 publication controversially synonymised Palaeoloxodon with Elephas based on morphological similarities between the two genera.[3] Later authors either considered Palaeoloxodon a valid genus or a subgenus of Elephas. Cladistic analyses finding Elephas and Palaeoloxodon to not be each other's closest relatives led to the placement of Palaeoloxodon species within Elephas to be questioned by other authors.[7][3] By the 2010s Palaeoloxodon was widely regarded as a valid genus separate from Elephas.[3]

Phylogeny showing the placement of Palaeoloxodon antiquus in relation to other elephantids based on nuclear genomes, after Palkopoulou et al. 2018, showing introgression from African forest elephants and mammoths

Historically, Palaeoloxodon was usually considered to be closely related to the genus Elephas.[6] In 2016, a study of the straight-tusked elephant (P. antiquus) mitochondrial genome and part of the nuclear genome found that the mitochondrial sequences were nested within the diversity of those of the African forest elephant, Loxodonta cyclotis, with the partial nuclear genome supporting P. antiquus as more closely related to L. cyclotis than the African bush elephant, L. africana.[8] A later study published in 2018 by the same authors based on the complete nuclear genome revised these results, and suggested P. antiquus resulted from reticulate evolution and had a complex hybridization history, with the majority (~60%) of its nuclear genome coming from a lineage more closely related to modern African elephants than to Asian elephants and mammoths, but which diverged before the split between the two living species, with significant introgressed ancestry from African forest elephants (~36%) and to a lesser extent mammoths (~6%). The ancestry from L. cyclotis was more closely related to modern West African populations of the forest elephant than to other forest elephant populations, while the mammoth ancestry was basal to the split between woolly and Columbian mammoths, probably from shortly after the split between the ancestors of mammoths and Asian elephants. The hybridisation probably took place in Africa, where Palaeoloxodon was dominant for most of the Early Pleistocene, with the mammoth hybridisation suggested to have taken place earlier than the hybridisation with forest elephants.[9]

Analysis of mitochondrial genomes, including Palaeoloxodon individuals from Northern China indicates Palaeoloxodon individuals harboured multiple separate mitochondrial genome lineages derived from African forest elephants, some being more closely related to some West African forest elephant groups than to others. It is unclear as to whether this is the result of multiple hybridisation events, or whether multiple mitochondrial lineages were introgressed in a single event. It has been found that mitochondrial genome of Chinese Palaeoloxodon specimens clustered with a P. antiquus individual from western Europe, which belonged to a separate clade than other sampled European P. antiquus specimens. The relatively low divergence between the mitochondrial genomes of the European P. antiquus individual and the Chinese Palaeoloxodon specimens may indicate that the populations of Palaeoloxodon across Eurasia maintained gene flow with each other, but this is uncertain.[10]

Diagram of the relationships of elephant mitochondrial genomes, after Lin et al. 2023:[10]

Elephantidae

Elephas (Asian elephant)

Mammuthus (mammoths)

Loxodonta africana (African bush elephant)

Palaeoloxodon+Loxodonta cyclotis

North central African forest elephant clade

Chinese Palaeoloxodon

Chinese Palaeoloxodon

Palaeoloxodon antiquus (Germany)

West central African forest elephant clade

Western African forest elephant clade

Paleoloxodon antiquus (Germany)

Palaeoloxodon cf. mnaidriensis (Sicily)

List of species

[edit]

Mainland species

[edit]
  • P. recki (Synonym: Elephas recki) (East Africa), the oldest species and ancestor of all later species
  • P. jolensis (Synonym: Elephas iolensis) the last (late Middle-Late Pleistocene) representative of Palaeoloxodon in Africa
  • P. antiquus (Synonym: Elephas antiquus) (Straight tusked elephant) (Europe, Western Asia)
  • P. huaihoensis (China)
  • P. namadicus (Synonym: Elephas namadicus)[11] (Indian subcontinent, possibly also elsewhere in Asia), the largest in its genus, and possibly the largest terrestrial mammal ever
  • P. naumanni (Synonym: E. namadicus naumanni) (Japan, possibly also China and Korea)[12]
  • P. turkmenicus known from a specimen found in the Middle Pleistocene of Turkmenistan in Central Asia, as well as a specimen from the Kashmir Valley in the northwest Indian subcontinent.

Mediterranean island dwarfs

[edit]

These Mediterranean insular dwarf elephant species are almost certainly descended from P. antiquus

Other indeterminate dwarf Palaeoloxodon species are known from other Greek islands, including Rhodes and Kasos.[13]

Description

[edit]
See also: Elephant § Anatomy

Many species of Palaeoloxodon are noted for the distinctive parieto-occipital crest, a bone growth at the top of the skull above the nasal opening which projects forwards and overhangs the rest of the skull. The crest probably functioned to anchor muscle tissue, including the splenius as well as an additional muscle layer called the "extra splenius" (which was likely similar to the "splenius superficialis" found in Asian elephants, and which may have been an extension of the rhomboideus cervicis muscle) which wrapped around the top of the head to support it. The development of the crest is variable depending on the species, growth stage and gender, with females and juveniles having less developed or absent crests. The crest likely developed as a response to the large size of the head, which in proportional and absolute terms are the largest in size of any proboscideans.[6] The skull is proportionally short and tall,[3] with the premaxillary bones containing the tusks being flared outwards. The tusks have relatively little curvature, and are proportionally large,[6] and somewhat twisted, with the tusk alveoli (sockets) being divergent from each other at least in Pleistocene species.[3] These tusks could reach 4 metres (13 ft) in length, and probably over 190 kilograms (420 lb) in weight in the largest species, larger than any recorded in modern elephants.[14]

The molar teeth of Palaeoloxodon species typically show a "dot-dash-dot" wear pattern,[15] with the enamel folds concentrated into a major central structure at the midline of the tooth, which are flanked by smaller folds on either side, and the crowns of the tooth are generally proportionally narrow.[16] The teeth are typically very hypsodont (high crowned) with a substantial number of lamellae (up to 19[6] to 21[17] on the third molar), though the lamellae frequency is distinctly lower than that reached by advanced mammoth species.[3] The morphology of the teeth varies little between non-dwarf Eurasian Palaeoloxodon species, meaning that they generally cannot be distinguished based on tooth morphology alone.[18]

Species of Palaeoloxodon varied widely in size. Fully grown bulls of Palaeoloxodon recki, Palaeoloxodon antiquus, Palaeoloxodon namadicus and Chinese Palaeoloxodon grew substantially larger than living elephants, reaching or exceeding 4 metres (13 ft) tall at the shoulder and 13 tonnes (29,000 lb) in body mass, making them some of the largest known terrestrial mammals to have ever lived.[19][2] In a 2015 study, one fragmentary unlocated femur of P. namadicus described in the 19th century was estimated to have belonged to an individual 5.2 metres (17 ft) tall and 22 tonnes (49,000 lb) in weight, exceeding the estimates for the otherwise largest known land mammals, the paraceratheres. However, this estimate is highly speculative and the author suggested that it should be "taken with a grain of salt".[2] In contrast, some of the island dwarf species are the smallest elephants known. The smallest species, P. cypriotes and P. falconeri, only reached 1 metre (3.3 ft) tall as fully grown adults,[20][21] with fully grown adult bulls of P. falconeri having an estimated body mass of only 250 kg (550 lb).[21]

  • Life restoration of Palaeoloxodon namadicus
    Life restoration of Palaeoloxodon namadicus
  • Skeletal diagram of an adult male straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus)
    Skeletal diagram of an adult male straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus)
  • Third molar teeth of Palaeoloxodon huaihoensis
    Third molar teeth of Palaeoloxodon huaihoensis
  • Partial skull of Palaeoloxodon namadicus, showing the parieto-occipital crest at the top of the skull
    Partial skull of Palaeoloxodon namadicus, showing the parieto-occipital crest at the top of the skull
  • Size comparison of the dwarf elephant Palaeoloxodon falconeri, one of the smallest elephants known
    Size comparison of the dwarf elephant Palaeoloxodon falconeri, one of the smallest elephants known
  • Skull of Palaeoloxodon antiquus in front-on view, showing flared premaxillae with divergent tusks
    Skull of Palaeoloxodon antiquus in front-on view, showing flared premaxillae with divergent tusks

Ecology

[edit]
See also: Elephant § Behaviour_and_ecology

Species of Palaeoloxodon are thought to have had similar social behaviour to modern elephants, with herds of adult females and juveniles, as well as solitary adult males.[22] The African species of Palaeoloxodon, as well as P. namadicus are suggested to have been grazers,[23][24] while P. antiquus is suggested to have been a variable mixed feeder that consumed a considerable amount of browse.[25]

Evolution

[edit]
Skeleton of an adult male Palaeoloxodon recki, the earliest species of Palaeoloxodon

Palaeoloxodon first unambiguously appears in the fossil record in Africa during the Early Pleistocene, around 1.8 million years ago as the species Palaeoloxodon recki ileretensis (it is contested whether earlier "E. recki" subspecies are related to Palaeoloxodon).[26] P. recki was the dominant elephant in East Africa for most of the Pleistocene. A population of P. recki migrated out of Africa at the beginning of the Middle Pleistocene around 800,000 years ago, diversifying into the radiation of Eurasian Palaeoloxodon species, including P. antiquus, and P. namadicus. The precise relationships of the Eurasian taxa to each other are obscure.[27] The arrival of P. antiquus in Europe co-incides with the extinction of the temperate adapted mammoth species Mammuthus meridionalis (sometimes called the southern mammoth) and its replacement by Mammuthus trogontherii (the steppe mammoth) in Europe, with the extinction of M. meridionalis possibly in part a result of competition with P. antiquus.[27] P. antiquus was able to disperse onto many islands in the Mediterranean, undergoing insular dwarfism and speciating into numerous distinct varieties of dwarf elephants. Palaeoloxodon fossils are abundant in China and are assigned to three species, P. namadicus, P. naumanni and P. huaihoensis.[28] However, the relationships of Chinese Palaeoloxodon are currently unresolved and it is unclear how many species were present in the region.[6]

Extinction

[edit]
See also: Late Pleistocene extinctions

The timing of the extinction of the last Paleoloxodon species in Africa, P. jolensis, is uncertain. While often suggested to have gone extinct during the Late Pleistocene, most specimens of the species are poorly dated and dating of specimens from Kenya suggests that it went extinct there around 130,000 years ago, at the end of the Middle Pleistocene.[23] Most Eurasian species of Palaeoloxodon became extinct towards the end of the Last Glacial Period. The youngest records of P. antiquus are from the Iberian Peninsula, dating to around 44-43,000 years ago, with footprints from the southern part of the peninsula possibly extending the record to 28,000 years ago.[29] The youngest Japanese records of P. naumanni date to around 24,000 years ago.[30] The timing of extinction of Chinese Palaeoloxodon and Indian P. namadicus is uncertain, but claims of a Holocene survival are not substantiated for either region.[31][32][33] The youngest dates for the Sicilian dwarf elephant P. cf. mnaidriensis are around 32-20,000 years ago,[34] while those of Cyprus dwarf elephant P. cypriotes are around 12,000 years ago.[35] P. tiliensis from the Greek island of Tilos was suggested to have survived as recently as 3,500 years Before Present based on preliminary radiocarbon dating done in the 1970s, which would make it the youngest surviving elephant in Europe, but this has not been thoroughly investigated.[13]

Relationship with humans

[edit]
Further information: Straight-tusked_elephant § Relationship_with_humans, Palaeoloxodon_recki § Relationship_with_humans, Palaeoloxodon_naumanni § Relationship_with_humans, and Palaeoloxodon_cypriotes § Extinction

Evidence of interaction with Palaeoloxodon by archaic humans extends back over 1 million years ago in Africa, with a number sites with Palaeoloxodon recki in Africa showing evidence of butchery.[36] There is extensive evidence for butchery and to a lesser extent hunting of the European straight-tusked elephant by archaic humans like Homo heidelbergensis and Neanderthals.[37] Evidence has been found for butchery of Palaeoloxodon turkmenicus by archaic humans in the Indian subcontinent.[38] Based on the association of their remains with stone artefacts, it has been suggested modern humans encountered and butchered the Japanese P. naumanni and the Cyprus dwarf elephant P. cypriotes during the Last Glacial Period.[39][40]

References

[edit]
  1. ^ a b Matsumoto, Hikoshichiro (1924). 日本産化石象の種類(略報) [Types of fossil elephants from Japan]. 地質学雑誌 (in Japanese). 31 (371): 255–272. doi:10.5575/geosoc.31.371_255.
  2. ^ a b c Larramendi, A. (2015). "Shoulder height, body mass and shape of proboscideans". Acta Palaeontologica Polonica. 60. doi:10.4202/app.00136.2014.
  3. ^ a b c d e f g h Athanassiou, Athanassios (2022), Vlachos, Evangelos (ed.), "The Fossil Record of Continental Elephants and Mammoths (Mammalia: Proboscidea: Elephantidae) in Greece", Fossil Vertebrates of Greece Vol. 1, Cham: Springer International Publishing, pp. 345–391, doi:10.1007/978-3-030-68398-6_13, ISBN 978-3-030-68397-9, S2CID 245067102, retrieved 2023-07-16
  4. ^ Rieppel, Olivier (2022-05-04). "The first ever described dinosaur bone fragment in Robinet's philosophy of nature (1768)". Historical Biology. 34 (5): 940–946. Bibcode:2022HBio...34..940R. doi:10.1080/08912963.2021.1954176. ISSN 0891-2963.
  5. ^ Davies, Paul; (2002) The straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon antiquus) in Pleistocene Europe. Doctoral thesis (Ph.D), UCL (University College London).
  6. ^ a b c d e f Larramendi, Asier; Zhang, Hanwen; Palombo, Maria Rita; Ferretti, Marco P. (February 2020). "The evolution of Palaeoloxodon skull structure: Disentangling phylogenetic, sexually dimorphic, ontogenetic, and allometric morphological signals". Quaternary Science Reviews. 229: 106090. Bibcode:2020QSRv..22906090L. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.106090. S2CID 213676377.
  7. ^ Shoshani, J.; Ferretti, M. P.; Lister, A. M.; Agenbroad, L. D.; Saegusa, H.; Mol, D.; Takahashi, K. (2007). "Relationships within the Elephantinae using hyoid characters". Quaternary International. 169–170: 174–185. Bibcode:2007QuInt.169..174S. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2007.02.003.
  8. ^ Meyer, Matthias; Palkopoulou, Eleftheria; Baleka, Sina; Stiller, Mathias; Penkman, Kirsty E H; Alt, Kurt W; Ishida, Yasuko; Mania, Dietrich; Mallick, Swapan; Meijer, Tom; Meller, Harald; Nagel, Sarah; Nickel, Birgit; Ostritz, Sven; Rohland, Nadin (2017-06-06). "Palaeogenomes of Eurasian straight-tusked elephants challenge the current view of elephant evolution". eLife. 6. doi:10.7554/eLife.25413. ISSN 2050-084X. PMC 5461109. PMID 28585920.
  9. ^ Palkopoulou, Eleftheria; Lipson, Mark; Mallick, Swapan; Nielsen, Svend; Rohland, Nadin; Baleka, Sina; Karpinski, Emil; Ivancevic, Atma M.; To, Thu-Hien; Kortschak, R. Daniel; Raison, Joy M. (2018-03-13). "A comprehensive genomic history of extinct and living elephants". Proceedings of the National Academy of Sciences. 115 (11): E2566–E2574. Bibcode:2018PNAS..115E2566P. doi:10.1073/pnas.1720554115. ISSN 0027-8424. PMC 5856550. PMID 29483247.
  10. ^ a b Lin, Haifeng; Hu, Jiaming; Baleka, Sina; Yuan, Junxia; Chen, Xi; Xiao, Bo; Song, Shiwen; Du, Zhicheng; Lai, Xulong; Hofreiter, Michael; Sheng, Guilian (July 2023). "A genetic glimpse of the Chinese straight-tusked elephants". Biology Letters. 19 (7). doi:10.1098/rsbl.2023.0078. ISSN 1744-957X. PMC 10353889. PMID 37463654.
  11. ^ Kevrekidis, C., & Mol, D. (2016). A new partial skeleton of Elephas (Palaeoloxodon) antiquus Falconer and Cautley, 1847 (Proboscidea, Elephantidae) from Amyntaio, Macedonia, Greece. Quaternary International, 406, 35–56. https://doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2015.11.110
  12. ^ van der Geer, A.; Lyras, G. A.; de Vos, J. (2021). "Japan: Honshu, Shikoku, and Kyushu". Evolution of Island Mammals: Adaptation and Extinction of Placental Mammals on Islands. Oxford: Wiley Blackwell. p. 334. ISBN 9781119675730.
  13. ^ a b Athanassiou, Athanassios; van der Geer, Alexandra A.E.; Lyras, George A. (August 2019). "Pleistocene insular Proboscidea of the Eastern Mediterranean: A review and update". Quaternary Science Reviews. 218: 306–321. Bibcode:2019QSRv..218..306A. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.06.028. ISSN 0277-3791. S2CID 199107354.
  14. ^ Larramendi, Asier (2023-12-10). "Estimating tusk masses in proboscideans: a comprehensive analysis and predictive model". Historical Biology: 1–14. doi:10.1080/08912963.2023.2286272. ISSN 0891-2963.
  15. ^ Pokines, James T.; Lister, Adrian M.; Ames, Christopher J. H.; Nowell, April; Cordova, Carlos E. (March 2019). "Faunal remains from recent excavations at Shishan Marsh 1 (SM1), a Late Lower Paleolithic open-air site in the Azraq Basin, Jordan". Quaternary Research. 91 (2): 768–791. Bibcode:2019QuRes..91..768P. doi:10.1017/qua.2018.113. ISSN 0033-5894. S2CID 134216492.
  16. ^ Lister, Adrian M.; Dirks, Wendy; Assaf, Amnon; Chazan, Michael; Goldberg, Paul; Applbaum, Yaakov H.; Greenbaum, Nathalie; Horwitz, Liora Kolska (September 2013). "New fossil remains of Elephas from the southern Levant: Implications for the evolutionary history of the Asian elephant". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 386: 119–130. Bibcode:2013PPP...386..119L. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2013.05.013. ISSN 0031-0182.
  17. ^ Saarinen, Juha; Lister, Adrian M. (October 2016). "Dental mesowear reflects local vegetation and niche separation in Pleistocene proboscideans from Britain: Dental Mesowear in Pleistocene Proboscideans". Journal of Quaternary Science. 31 (7): 799–808. doi:10.1002/jqs.2906.
  18. ^ Jukar, Advait M.; Bhat, Ghulam; Parfitt, Simon; Ashton, Nick; Dickinson, Marc; Zhang, Hanwen; Dar, A. M.; Lone, M. S.; Thusu, Bindra; Craig, Jonathan (2024-10-11). "A remarkable Palaeoloxodon (Mammalia, Proboscidea) skull from the intermontane Kashmir Valley, India". Journal of Vertebrate Paleontology. doi:10.1080/02724634.2024.2396821. ISSN 0272-4634.
  19. ^ Biswas, Deep Shubhra; Chang, Chun-Hsiang; Tsai, Cheng-Hsiu (July 2024). "Land of the giants: Body mass estimates of Palaeoloxodon from the Pleistocene of Taiwan". Quaternary Science Reviews. 336: 108761. Bibcode:2024QSRv..33608761B. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2024.108761.
  20. ^ Scarborough, Matthew Edward (2022-03-11). "Extreme Body Size Variation in Pleistocene Dwarf Elephants from the Siculo-Maltese Palaeoarchipelago: Disentangling the Causes in Time and Space". Quaternary. 5 (1): 17. doi:10.3390/quat5010017. hdl:11427/36354. ISSN 2571-550X.
  21. ^ a b Romano, Marco; Manucci, Fabio; Palombo, Maria Rita (2021-03-04). "The smallest of the largest: new volumetric body mass estimate and in-vivo restoration of the dwarf elephant Palaeoloxodon ex gr. P. falconeri from Spinagallo Cave (Sicily)". Historical Biology. 33 (3): 340–353. Bibcode:2021HBio...33..340R. doi:10.1080/08912963.2019.1617289. ISSN 0891-2963. S2CID 181855906.
  22. ^ Neto de Carvalho, Carlos; Belaústegui, Zain; Toscano, Antonio; Muñiz, Fernando; Belo, João; Galán, Jose María; Gómez, Paula; Cáceres, Luis M.; Rodríguez-Vidal, Joaquín; Cunha, Pedro Proença; Cachão, Mario; Ruiz, Francisco; Ramirez-Cruzado, Samuel; Giles-Guzmán, Francisco; Finlayson, Geraldine (2021-09-16). "First tracks of newborn straight-tusked elephants (Palaeoloxodon antiquus)". Scientific Reports. 11 (1): 17311. Bibcode:2021NatSR..1117311N. doi:10.1038/s41598-021-96754-1. ISSN 2045-2322. PMC 8445925. PMID 34531420.
  23. ^ a b Manthi, Fredrick Kyalo; Sanders, William J.; Plavcan, J. Michael; Cerling, Thure E.; Brown, Francis H. (September 2020). "Late Middle Pleistocene Elephants from Natodomeri, Kenya and the Disappearance of Elephas (Proboscidea, Mammalia) in Africa". Journal of Mammalian Evolution. 27 (3): 483–495. doi:10.1007/s10914-019-09474-9. ISSN 1064-7554. S2CID 198190671.
  24. ^ Patnaik, Rajeev; Singh, Ningthoujam Premjit; Paul, Debajyoti; Sukumar, Raman (2019-11-15). "Dietary and habitat shifts in relation to climate of Neogene-Quaternary proboscideans and associated mammals of the Indian subcontinent". Quaternary Science Reviews. 224: 105968. Bibcode:2019QSRv..22405968P. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.105968. ISSN 0277-3791. S2CID 210307849.
  25. ^ Rivals, Florent; Semprebon, Gina M.; Lister, Adrian M. (September 2019). "Feeding traits and dietary variation in Pleistocene proboscideans: A tooth microwear review". Quaternary Science Reviews. 219: 145–153. Bibcode:2019QSRv..219..145R. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2019.06.027. S2CID 200073388.
  26. ^ Sanders, William J. (2023-07-07). Evolution and Fossil Record of African Proboscidea (1 ed.). Boca Raton: CRC Press. pp. 267–293. doi:10.1201/b20016. ISBN 978-1-315-11891-8.
  27. ^ a b Lister, Adrian M. (2004), "Ecological Interactions of Elephantids in Pleistocene Eurasia", Human Paleoecology in the Levantine Corridor, Oxbow Books, pp. 53–60, ISBN 978-1-78570-965-4, retrieved 2020-04-14
  28. ^ Kang, Jia-Cih; Lin, Chien-Hsiang; Chang, Chun-Hsiang (2021-04-14). "Age and growth of Palaeoloxodon huaihoensis from Penghu Channel, Taiwan: significance of their age distribution based on fossils". PeerJ. 9: e11236. doi:10.7717/peerj.11236. ISSN 2167-8359. PMC 8052959. PMID 33954049.
  29. ^ de Carvalho, Carlos Neto; Figueiredo, Silvério; Muniz, Fernando; Belo, João; Cunha, Pedro P.; Baucon, Andrea; Cáceres, Luis M.; Rodriguez-Vidal, Joaquín (2020-07-02). "Tracking the last elephants in Europe during the Würm Pleniglacial: the importance of the Late Pleistocene aeolianite record in SW Iberia". Ichnos. 27 (3): 352–360. Bibcode:2020Ichno..27..352D. doi:10.1080/10420940.2020.1744586. ISSN 1042-0940. S2CID 216504699.
  30. ^ Iwase, Akira; Hashizume, Jun; Izuho, Masami; Takahashi, Keiichi; Sato, Hiroyuki (March 2012). "Timing of megafaunal extinction in the late Late Pleistocene on the Japanese Archipelago". Quaternary International. 255: 114–124. Bibcode:2012QuInt.255..114I. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2011.03.029.
  31. ^ Jukar, A.M.; Lyons, S.K.; Wagner, P.J.; Uhen, M.D. (January 2021). "Late Quaternary extinctions in the Indian Subcontinent". Palaeogeography, Palaeoclimatology, Palaeoecology. 562: 110137. Bibcode:2021PPP...56210137J. doi:10.1016/j.palaeo.2020.110137. S2CID 228877664.
  32. ^ Turvey, Samuel T.; Sathe, Vijay; Crees, Jennifer J.; Jukar, Advait M.; Chakraborty, Prateek; Lister, Adrian M. (January 2021). "Late Quaternary megafaunal extinctions in India: How much do we know?". Quaternary Science Reviews. 252: 106740. Bibcode:2021QSRv..25206740T. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2020.106740. S2CID 234265221.
  33. ^ Turvey, Samuel T.; Tong, Haowen; Stuart, Anthony J.; Lister, Adrian M. (September 2013). "Holocene survival of Late Pleistocene megafauna in China: a critical review of the evidence". Quaternary Science Reviews. 76: 156–166. Bibcode:2013QSRv...76..156T. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2013.06.030. ISSN 0277-3791.
  34. ^ Palombo, Maria Rita; Antonioli, Fabrizio; Di Patti, Carolina; Valeria, Lo Presti; Scarborough, Matthew E. (2021-10-03). "Was the dwarfed Palaeoloxodon from Favignana Island the last endemic Pleistocene elephant from the western Mediterranean islands?". Historical Biology. 33 (10): 2116–2134. Bibcode:2021HBio...33.2116P. doi:10.1080/08912963.2020.1772251. ISSN 0891-2963. S2CID 225710152.
  35. ^ Athanassiou, Athanassios; Herridge, Victoria; Reese, David S.; Iliopoulos, George; Roussiakis, Socrates; Mitsopoulou, Vassiliki; Tsiolakis, Efthymios; Theodorou, George (August 2015). "Cranial evidence for the presence of a second endemic elephant species on Cyprus". Quaternary International. 379: 47–57. Bibcode:2015QuInt.379...47A. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2015.05.065. ISSN 1040-6182.
  36. ^ Haynes, Gary (March 2022). "Late Quaternary Proboscidean Sites in Africa and Eurasia with Possible or Probable Evidence for Hominin Involvement". Quaternary. 5 (1): 18. doi:10.3390/quat5010018. ISSN 2571-550X.
  37. ^ Konidaris, George E.; Tourloukis, Vangelis (2021-04-14). "Proboscidea-Homo interactions in open-air localities during the Early and Middle Pleistocene of western Eurasia: a palaeontological and archaeolocigal perspective". Human-Elephant Interactions: From Past to Present. doi:10.15496/publikation-55599.
  38. ^ Bhat, Ghulam M.; Ashton, Nick; Parfitt, Simon; Jukar, Advait; Dickinson, Marc R.; Thusu, Bindra; Craig, Jonathan (October 2024). "Human exploitation of a straight-tusked elephant (Palaeoloxodon) in Middle Pleistocene deposits at Pampore, Kashmir, India". Quaternary Science Reviews. 342: 108894. doi:10.1016/j.quascirev.2024.108894.
  39. ^ Kondo, Y.; Takeshita, Y.; Watanabe, T.; Seki, M.; Nojiri-ko Excavation Research Group (April 2018). "Geology and Quaternary Environments of the Tategahana Paleolithic Site in Nojiri-ko (Lake Nojiri), Nagano, Central Japan". Quaternary International. 471: 385–395. Bibcode:2018QuInt.471..385K. doi:10.1016/j.quaint.2017.12.012.
  40. ^ Moutsiou, Theodora; Reepmeyer, Christian; Kassianidou, Vasiliki; Zomeni, Zomenia; Agapiou, Athos (2021-10-27). Biehl, Peter F. (ed.). "Modelling the Pleistocene colonisation of Eastern Mediterranean islandscapes". PLOS ONE. 16 (10): e0258370. Bibcode:2021PLoSO..1658370M. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0258370. ISSN 1932-6203. PMC 8550414. PMID 34705853.
Retrieved from "https://en.wikipedia.org/w/index.php?title=Palaeoloxodon&oldid=1264828583"